Question 1
In the example presented, ‘The indian roller is on the window-ledge.’ is clearly a more acceptable sentence. An explanation based on the fact that the figure (that is the Indian Roller) occupies first position in a sentence (often being the one more attended to), and the ground the last position serves as a plausible explanation to describe its greater acceptability as opposed to ‘The window ledge is below the indian roller.’ As choosing a figure, i.e. the bird from the given picture is a cognitive function, one is forced to believe that cognitive function influences language. If language were autonomous then the second construction would be as acceptable as the first one.
This makes sense as our mind associates semantic attributes to every word or phrase learned. Hence, making use of these words and phrases without using all the semantic properties associated with them is impossible to do. We associate stability and constancy with the window-ledge, whereas we associate potential for movement with the bird. The bird hence, has a greater chance of changing its state and moving, which makes us consider this the figure. Hence, we consider the ledge a reference for measuring the position of the bird, which is reflected by its secondary positioning at the end of the sentence. Also, the fact that a Hindi speaker would also consider ‘Chidiya kagaar par hai’ more acceptable than ‘Kagaar chidiya ke neeche hai’ tells us the same cognitive functions influence grammar across different languages, further supporting the view that language is not autonomous.
Question 2
Parts a) and b)
Participant 1
Language spoken in the first five years: Hindi
Parents' mother tongue: Hindi (mixed with Marwari)
Lived in Kota, Rajasthan from birth.
Studied in English-medium schools, but studied Hindi till class 12.
| Gaya | Chala | Pada | Daala | Utha | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nikal | A | N A | A | N A | N A |
| Keh | A | A | A | A | A |
| Bol | N A | N A | A | A | A |
| Ro | A | N A | A | N A | A |
| Has | A | N A | A | A | A |
A: Acceptable, N A: Not acceptable
Sentences constructed using gaya: a. Wah bahar nikal gaya. b. Phool khil gaya. and c. Ram so gaya.
Sentences constructed using pada: a. Ram gir pada. b. Bomb fatt pada. and c. Mera naada khul pada.
Sentences constructed using utha: a. Use dekhar main jal utha. b. Main thand se kaanp utha. and c. Main jaag utha.
The participant felt that gaya, pada and utha represent increasing levels of intensity, in that order. Gaya is the softest and is used for easily acceptable actions. Pada represents a slight abruptness and is somewhat mild too. Utha is used for sudden and violent actions.
Participant 2
Language spoken in the first five years: Hindi
Parents' mother tongue: Hindi (mixed with Marwari)
Lived in Susner, Distict Shajapur, Madhya Pradesh for first five years. Eventually moved to Mahipur, Distict Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh, and then to Garoth, District Mandsaur, Madhya Pradesh
Studied in English-medium schools, but studied Hindi till class 10.
| Gaya | Chala | Pada | Daala | Utha | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nikal | A | A | A | N A | N A |
| Keh | A | A | N A | A | N A |
| Bol | A | N A | A | A | N A |
| Ro | A | N A | A | N A | N A |
| Has | A | N A | A | A | A |
A: Acceptable, N A: Not acceptable
Sentences constructed using gaya: a. Wah chala gaya. b. Chuha mar gaya. and c. Saap ghar mein ghus gaya.
Sentences constructed using pada: a. Wah chal pada. b. Munna gir pada and c. Pariksha de kar hum nikal pade.
Sentences constructed using utha: a. Kaphi sardi ke baad, suraj nikal utha. b. Khoon khaul utha. and c. Aakhri vyang par sabhi has uthe.
The participant felt that pada can give an informal context to the strong verb. For example, nikal pada is a common used slang, whereas the formal construction is nikal gaya. Gaya is more formal in that sense for certain cases. Utha shows suddenness of motion, whereas gaya and pada represent smooth movements.
Question 2
Part c)
The light verb utha in my view is used to show extremely powerful and often sudden actions. The energy used is very high in such complex predicates. Taking an example from Participant 2's response, viz. ‘Khoon kahul utha.’ It shows an extreme anger caused by a sudden provocation. Similarly ‘Main thand se kaanp utha.’ shows a sudden and intense reaction to cold.