Q.1 This does represent an example of language as arising out of general cognitive functions. For example, consider if there were a bird flying at an altitude lower than that of an aeroplane, in the same vertical line. In that case, one would rather choose to say the first of the following two: a) The bird is flying below the aeroplane b) The aeroplane is flying over the bird Consider, another scenario, where a child is hiding under a table. Here, one usually resorts to saying, that the child is below/ under the table. There is nothing in the language semantics, that tells us that one of the above/below words is favorable. One can only attribute it to cognitive preferences of size, dynamics(the ground is fixed, so is the table) etc. Q.2 *** Subject 1 * Language(s) spoken in first 5 years: Hindi, a bit of English(alphabet and small words) * Parents' mother tongue: Hindi * First 5 years residence: First 3 years - Bhopal Next 2 years - Jhansi * Schooling in Hindi till 10th class Part 1 :- nikal: gaya, para keh: gaya, para, daala, utha bol: para, daala, utha ro: para, utha has: gaya, para, utha Part 2: gaya: wo chala gaya arre, wo kahan gaya? aaj ka din bhi nikal gaya para: wo daudte daudte gir para mera laptop kiske room par para hua hai? wo ro para utha: tu subah kyon nahi utha? saamaan utha kar idhar rakh do wo atyachaar ke virudh bol utha Difference in generic meanings: gaya: going somewhere, in a sense. Used to state that an object, animate or inanimate, is no longer around or an event, that is past. para: falling down, information about a static state utha: going up, doing something, can signify initiative; contrasted with para *** Subject 2 * Language(s) spoken in first 5 years: Hindi, a bit of English * Parents' mother tongue: Hindi * First 5 years residence: First 2 years in Aligarh, rest Kanpur * Schooling in Hindi till 10th class Part 1 nikal: gaya keh: daala bol: para, utha ro: para has: para, utha Part 2 Usage gaya: wo chala gaya wo fisal gaya wo sudhar gaya para gir para chal para thapad para utha kaanp utha sihar utha Meanings: gaya - going away para - impacting something/someone utha - lifting up an object *** Usage of 'utha', energy associated The verb 'utha' seems to indicate the happening of a high energy event. Initiative, positive action, an action requiring some force or effort are events that can and often are associated with 'utha'. Its usage in some sense, can be contrasted with the usage of 'para' which is used to indicate events of low energy or static nature.