Computer Networks (CS425)

Instructor: Dr. Dheeraj Sanghi

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ISO-OSI 7-Layer Network Architecture

This lecture introduces the ISO-OSI layered architecture of Networks. According to the ISO standards, networks have been divided into 7 layers depending on the complexity of the fucntionality each of these layers provide. The detailed description of each of these layers is given in the notes below. We will first list the layers as defined by the standard in the increasing order of function complexity:

  1. Physical Layer
  2. Data Link Layer
  3. Network Layer
  4. Transport Layer
  5. Session Layer
  6. Presentation Layer
  7. Application Layer

Physical Layer

This layer is the lowest layer in the OSI model. It helps in the transmission of data between two machines that are communicating through a physical medium, which can be optical fibres,copper wire or wireless etc. The following are the main functions of the physical layer:
  1. Hardware Specification: The details of the physical cables, network interface cards, wireless radios, etc are a part of this layer.

    Coaxial Cable Hybrid Cable Wireless Card Network Card

  2. Encoding and Signalling: How are the bits encoded in the medium is also decided by this layer. For example, on the coppar wire medium, we can use differnet voltage levels for a certain time interval to represent '0' and '1'. We may use +5mV for 1nsec to represent '1' and -5mV for 1nsec to represent '0'. All the issues of modulation is dealt with in this layer. eg, we may use Binary phase shift keying for the representation of '1' and '0' rather than using different volatage levels if we have to transfer in RF waves.


    Binary Phase Shift Keying

  3. Data Transmission and Reception: The transfer of each bit of data is the responsibility of this layer. This layer assures the transmissoin of each bit with a high probability. The transmission of the bits is not completely reliable as their is no error correction in this layer.
  4. Topology and Network Design: The network design is the integral part of the physical layer. Which part of the network is the router going to be placed, where the switches will be used, where we will put the hubs, how many machines is each switch going to handle, what server is going to be placed where, and many such concerns are to be taken care of by the physical layer. The variosu kinds of netopologies that we decide to use may be ring, bus, star or a hybrid of these topologies depending on our requirements.



Data Link Layer

This layer provides reliable transmission of a packet by using the services of the physical layer which transmits bits over the medium in an unreliable fashion. This layer is concerned with :
  1. Framing : Breaking input data into frames (typically a few hundred bytes) and caring about the frame boundaries and the size of each frame.
  2. Acknowledgment : Sent by the receiving end to inform the source that the frame was received without any error.
  3. Sequence Numbering : To acknowledge which frame was received.
  4. Error Detection : The frames may be damaged, lost or duplicated leading to errors.The error control is on link to link basis.
  5. Retransmission : The packet is retransmitted if the source fails to receive acknowledgment.
  6. Flow Control : Necessary for a fast transmitter to keep pace with a slow receiver.


Data Link Layer

Network Layer

Its basic functions are routing and congestion control.
Routing: This deals with determining how packets will be routed (transferred) from source to destination. It can be of three types :


Routing

The services provided by the network can be of two types : Congestion Control: A router can be connected to 4-5 networks. If all the networks send packet at the same time with maximum rate possible then the router may not be able to handle all the packets and may drop some/all packets. In this context the dropping of the packets should be minimized and the source whose packet was dropped should be informed. The control of such congestion is also a function of the network layer. Other issues related with this layer are transmitting time, delays, jittering.

Internetworking: Internetworks are multiple networks that are connected in such a way that they act as one large network, connecting multiple office or department networks. Internetworks are connected by networking hardware such as routers, switches, and bridges.Internetworking is a solution born of three networking problems: isolated LANs, duplication of resources, and the lack of a centralized network management system. With connected LANs, companies no longer have to duplicate programs or resources on each network. This in turn gives way to managing the network from one central location instead of trying to manage each separate LAN. We should be able to transmit any packet from one network to any other network even if they follow different protocols or use different addressing modes.


Inter-Networking

Network Layer does not guarantee that the packet will reach its intended destination. There are no reliability guarantees.

Transport Layer

Its functions are :
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